Breast cysticercosis - a case report.

SUMMARY: Isolated incidences of human cysticercosis have been reported world-wide, but it remains a major public health concern in endemic areas such as Mexico, Africa, South-East Asia, Eastern Europe, and South America. Cysticercosis most commonly involves the skeletal muscle, subcutaneous tissue, brain, and eyes. The breast is an uncommon site of presentation for cysticercosis. Due to its rare occurrence, breast cysticercosis is often initially mistaken for other common breast lesions such as cysts, abscess, malignant tumours and fibroadenomas. We report a case of breast cysticercosis in a young South African woman.

An audit of clinically triaged women at low risk for breast cancer presenting to the Helen Joseph Mammography Unit.

BACKGROUND: The Helen Joseph Hospital (HJH) breast clinic utilises a clinical triage system to stratify patients based on their risk of breast cancer into high-, medium-, or low-risk profiles. This allows for timeous imaging and subsequent management of those patients at increased risk for breast cancer. The primary objective was to determine the cancer detection rate (CDR). The secondary objective was to correlate biopsy results with the Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) risk assessment. METHODS: A retrospective audit of the patients at low risk for breast cancer who were referred to the breast imaging unit (BIU) in 2019 at HJH. Patients were clinically assessed as low risk based on a triage form and were identified using the imaging files stored in the BIU. Results were recorded on Microsoft Excel and calculated as per the American College of Radiology guidelines. RESULTS: The total population sample consisted of 398 patients. Two patients were characterised as BI-RADS 4 and underwent breast biopsies. One patient was diagnosed with histologically proven breast cancer. The CDR was 2.51%. The most representative groups were the age group of 60-69 years, BI-RADS breast density B and BI-RADS risk assessment 2. CONCLUSION: Amongst the low-risk population, both the CDR and spectrum of disease was comparable to that of a screening population. This may be due to the use of a triage system prior to imaging, as well as an increase in clinical awareness of breast cancer within a tertiary institution.

Nipple-areolar complex: commonest site of breast leiomyoma.

SUMMARY: Breast leiomyomas are extremely rare and commonly seen in the nipple-areolar complex due to the presence of smooth muscle. Identification of this rare benign tumour is based on its location and the presence of spindle cells on histology. We report a case of a breast leiomyoma in a female patient who had a six-year history of a unilateral breast mass. Breast ultrasound and mammography demonstrated a sub-areola mass and an ultrasound-guided core biopsy revealed a benign spindle cell neoplasm with smooth muscle differentiation. The lesion was excised and final histology confirmed a leiomyoma with clear margins.

Bizarre foreign body of the breast secondary to gender-based violence.

SUMMARY: Foreign bodies (FBs) are routinely introduced into the breast for surgical intervention. A bizarre FB of the breast may result from physical trauma secondary to abuse. We report on a 34-year-old female who presented with a metal FB in the right breast and a suspicious history, which raised concern for gender-based violence (GBV). Traumatic breast injuries are relatively rare. A high index of suspicion is important when dealing with unusual breast injuries in order to investigate these appropriately and rule out abuse.

An audit of patients clinically deemed as high risk for malignant breast pathology at the Helen Joseph Hospital Breast Clinic.

BACKGROUND: The Helen Joseph Hospital Breast Clinic has implemented a clinical triage system for patients presenting with a variety of breast concerns. The goal of this system is to expedite the process from initial presentation to radiological assessment of patients with suspected breast malignancy or breast abscess in a resource limited setting. The objective was to assess the clinical, imaging and histological diagnoses of breast disease in these patients with malignancy and sepsis. METHODS: A retrospective audit of patients clinically deemed high risk for malignant breast pathology referred to the breast imaging unit (BIU) in 2018. Patients were triaged based on strict clinical criteria: presence of a breast mass with or without lymph nodes or a breast abscess. Patients that were subsequently referred for mammography/ultrasound were identified using the patient files in the BIU. Results were recorded on Microsoft Excel and analysed using SAS version 9.2. RESULTS: Three hundred and twenty-five patients were included in this study. Eighty-seven (26.8%) were diagnosed with breast cancer and 236 (72.6%) with benign disease. The most common presenting complaint was a palpable mass (n = 227; 69.9%). Ninety-five per cent of patients characterised as BI-RADS 5 had malignant disease. 55.8% of malignancies diagnosed on ultrasound had locally advanced disease. The most common histological diagnosis of malignancy was invasive ductal carcinoma (n = 67, 77%). The most commonly diagnosed benign disease was breast abscess (n = 42, 17.8%). CONCLUSION: BI-RADS findings correspond to similar studies, however, a large number of benign breast disease was diagnosed. This may indicate heightened clinical awareness of breast cancer diagnosis and early detection. A significant percentage of malignancies presented as locally advanced. Except for a lower number of invasive lobular carcinoma, the histological spectrum of malignant disease is similar to comparative studies.

An audit of patients presenting with clinically benign breast disease to the Helen Joseph Hospital Breast Imaging Unit.

BACKGROUND: Benign breast pathology is a common presenting complaint, and its assessment is important to characterise not to miss malignant pathology. At Helen Joseph Hospital (HJH), patients are triaged at the breast clinic according to the clinical suspicion of benign versus malignant disease. The patients are assigned a colour label based on their clinical presentation. This triage system affects waiting times between clinical examination and mammography appointments. This study aims to assess the association between clinical examination and the radiological and pathological findings of disorders deemed clinically benign, and to ascertain the spectrum of benign breast disorders encountered at HJH. METHOD: A retrospective study of imaging results of patients at HJH presenting as clinically benign breast disorders from January to June 2018 was conducted. Assessed Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) score was noted and if core biopsies were performed, their results and patient demographics were documented. RESULTS: Of the 1 263 clinically benign patients presenting from January to June 2018, the radiological assessment was: BI-RADS 1: 158 (12.5%), BI-RADS 2: 685 (54.2%), BI-RADS 3: 292 (23.1%), BI-RADS 4a: 54 (4.3%), BI-RADS 4b: 29 (2.3 %), BI-RADS 4c: 21 (1.7%), BI-RADS 5: 24 (1.9%). There were 133 biopsies (including eight BI-RADS 3 patients), with 46 (3.6%) confirmed malignancies. The combined specificity of mammography and ultrasound was 65.52% (54.56-75.39%) and combined sensitivity 91.30% (79.21-97.58%). CONCLUSION: There is a vast spectrum of benign conditions presenting in this population group with only 3.6% confirmed malignancies, confirming an accurate triage system utilised at the breast clinic. Radiological imaging is highly sensitive but less specific, emphasising the triad of clinical, radiological and histological assessment as the gold standard with regard to diagnosis of breast disease.

Delay to diagnosis and breast cancer stage in an urban South African breast clinic.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women in many low- and middle-income countries, and often presents at an advanced stage that affects prognosis irrespective of the care available. Although patient-related delay is commonly cited, the reasons for delay and the relationship of delay to stage are still poorly documented, especially in Africa. OBJECTIVES: To identify where patient-related socioeconomic delays occur and how these relate to stage at presentation. METHODS: Consecutive women with a new breast cancer diagnosis were prospectively invited to complete a questionnaire on their socioeconomic characteristics and ability to access care. Clinical stage at presentation was documented. RESULTS: Over 14 months, 252 women completed the questionnaire (response rate 71.6%). Their median age was 55 years (interquartile range 44 - 65), with 26.5% aged <45 years. Stage at presentation was stage 1 in 15.5% of patients, stage 2 in 28.5% and stage 3 in 56.0%. Almost a third of the patients (30.4%) presented with a T4 tumour (6.1% inflammatory). Total delay in presenting to the breast clinic was significantly associated with locally advanced stage at presentation (p=0.021). Average delay differed between early stage (1.5 months) and locally advanced (2.5 months), and most delay occurred between acknowledging a breast symptom and seeking care. The least delay was between attending a health service and presenting at the open-access breast clinic, with 75.0% presenting within 1 month. Factors associated with delay were difficulties with transport, low level of education and fear of missing appointments due to work. CONCLUSIONS: Most women delayed in seeking breast care. Facilitating direct access to specialist breast clinics may reduce delays in presentation and improve time to diagnosis and care.

Delay to diagnosis and breast cancer stage in an urban South African breast clinic

Background. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women in many low- and middle-income countries, and often presents at an advanced stage that affects prognosis irrespective of the care available. Although patient-related delay is commonly cited, the reasons for delay and the relationship of delay to stage are still poorly documented, especially in Africa. Objectives. To identify where patient-related socioeconomic delays occur and how these relate to stage at presentation. Methods. Consecutive women with a new breast cancer diagnosis were prospectively invited to complete a questionnaire on their socioeconomic characteristics and ability to access care. Clinical stage at presentation was documented. Results. Over 14 months, 252 women completed the questionnaire (response rate 71.6%). Their median age was 55 years (interquartile range 44 - 65), with 26.5% aged <45 years. Stage at presentation was stage 1 in 15.5% of patients, stage 2 in 28.5% and stage 3 in 56.0%. Almost a third of the patients (30.4%) presented with a T4 tumour (6.1% inflammatory). Total delay in presenting to the breast clinic was significantly associated with locally advanced stage at presentation (p=0.021). Average delay differed between early stage (1.5 months) and locally advanced (2.5 months), and most delay occurred between acknowledging a breast symptom and seeking care. The least delay was between attending a health service and presenting at the open-access breast clinic, with 75.0% presenting within 1 month. Factors associated with delay were difficulties with transport, low level of education and fear of missing appointments due to work. Conclusions. Most women delayed in seeking breast care. Facilitating direct access to specialist breast clinics may reduce delays in presentation and improve time to diagnosis and care

Evaluation of emergency medical services systems: a classification to assist in determination of indicators.

Emergency medical services (EMS) systems, and prehospital care are difficult to evaluate. Accordingly, the true efficacy and value of such systems are difficult to determine. The multitude of variations and combinations of involved factors makes standardisation and comparison difficult, and universal indicators are hard to develop. Various attempts have been made to determine valid indicators of effectiveness, but there has been little success. Prehospital care has been seen by some as a single entity. As a result, experience from well resourced first world trauma centres has been taken, by many, to be applicable to all prehospital situations. This article attempts to assist in the development of valid EMS indicators of performance and effectiveness by categorising prehospital scenarios into a classification reflecting the reality of their conditions of practice.

Battle injuries of the rectum: options for the field surgeon.

Historically, battle wounds of the rectum have had high mortality and morbidity. This has improved greatly over several decades as a result of battle experience. This article highlights the value of civilian gunshot experience and its possible use in the military setting. The standard principles of rectal examination, followed by proctosigmoidoscopy after initial resuscitation, remain unchanged. Thereafter, the surgical decisions are made at laparotomy. Rectal injuries commonly have other injuries in association which must also be dealt with. In the stable patient rectal repair may be possible. Where repair is hazardous due to extensive injury (rectum or adjacent structures), the well-proven protective colostomy is used. A loop colostomy with or without distal closure is effective and is used to protect most injuries; possible exceptions being injuries dealt with early, in which there is minimal contamination and repair is easy. Presacral drainage can generally be reserved for severely destructive wounds or those in which repair has not been done. Rectal washout remains an option in patients with inspissated faeces. The basic military surgical principles remain valid, their extent and degree of implementation depending on the anatomical location of injury, degree of damage and any delay in presentation to surgery.

Primary closure of battle wounds of the colon: is it an option for the military surgeon?

The management of battle wounds of the colon has been safely established for many years, with primary closure of the wounds being discouraged. More recent work, involving large numbers of patients from civilian trauma centres, has challenged this. The appropriateness of these conclusions for the battle situation is discussed, including the nature of injury, the medical logistics and the combat scenario. Parameters are indicated and guide lines given, incorporating battle-proven military surgical principles and modern trauma experience. This includes damage control and possible primary closure of selected wounds. In this way the military surgeon can take an informed decision in providing optimal care for patients with battle wounds of the colon.

Transmediastinal gunshot injuries.

BACKGROUND: Transmediastinal gunshot injuries are a rarely reported injury. Until recently, assessment of the thoracic aorta by angiography preceded the investigation of the esophagus. This order has been recently debated. METHODS: There were 118 patients with potential transmediastinal injuries included in this retrospective study. Unstable patients who were unresponsive to resuscitation were taken to the operating room without previous investigation. Stable patients were routinely investigated initially for injury of the aorta and then for injury of the esophagus. RESULTS: There were 51 patients who underwent urgent thoracotomy/sternotomy. In 27, the hemorrhage was of mediastinal origin; 17 of these patients died of intraoperative bleeding. Eight of the patients had aortic injury, and only one of this group survived. There were 57 stable patients who were investigated initially for injury of the aorta by angiography. It was positive in only one patient who underwent an operation with good results. An investigation of the esophagus followed and revealed esophageal injury in 17 patients. All of them were treated operatively, 15 of them with satisfactory outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Angiography should at present precede esophageal investigations. There is a need for shortening the time between admission and operation. Other modalities that could expedite the investigation of the thoracic aorta and the esophagus should be prospectively evaluated in multi-center studies.

Hyperbaric oxygen in trauma and surgical emergencies.

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO), that is the administration of 100% oxygen delivered under pressure, has a beneficial effect in several surgical conditions. Its use has been assessed and audited and its pharmacological effects demonstrated. It is appropriate for use in several acute surgical conditions as evidence-based therapy. These are: Gas Gangrene Crush Injuries, Compartment Syndromes & Acute Traumatic Ischaemias Enhancement of Healing in Selected Problem Wounds Exceptional Blood loss Anaemia Necrotising Soft Tissue Infections Compromised Skin Grafts & Flaps Thermal Burns HBO therapy suffers from previous inappropriate use, lack of knowledge, and scarce hyperbaric facilities. Hyperbaric therapy, when properly supervised by a physician trained in its use, working closely with a surgeon, and ethically used for appropriate indications, can be a useful adjunct to surgical practice. Military surgeons may be in a situation in which they can utilize HBO in acute surgical conditions and trauma. They are urged to identify HBO facilities, both fixed and portable, and to establish communication with hyperbaric therapy colleagues.

Adventitial cystic disease: a unifying hypothesis.

PURPOSE: Six cases of adventitial cystic disease were studied, and the existing theories of the aetiology of adventitial cystic disease were reviewed to present evidence in support of a variation of the developmental hypothesis that might explain the sites of occurrence of this rare condition. METHODS: Cases of adventitial cystic disease were collected by interrogation of the records of a group of vascular surgeons in the Johannesburg area. After reviewing the relevant literature, the sites of occurrence of 323 cases of adventitial cystic disease were documented, and the theories of the formation of adventitial cystic disease were reviewed. The embryological origin of those vessels in which adventitial cystic disease occurs was investigated. Clinical cases were collected in private practice vascular referral centers. The clinical features, treatment, and subsequent course of six cases of adventitial cystic disease (four related to the popliteal artery, one in the femoral artery, and one in the radial artery) are included. RESULTS: All cases of adventitial cystic disease reported have occurred in the nonaxial arteries, which form at a later stage than the axial vessels during limb differentiation and development. It is therefore postulated that during limb bud development cell rests derived from condensations of mesenchymal tissue destined to form the knee, hip, wrist, or ankle joints are incorporated into the nearby and adjacent nonaxial vessels during development of these vessels in the 15-22-week stage. These newly forming nonaxial vessels develop from vascular plexuses during the same stage of development, and in close proximity to the adjacent condensing joint structures. It is further postulated that these cell rests are then responsible for the formation of adventitial cystic disease later in life, when the mucoid material secreted results in a mass lesion within the arterial or venous wall. CONCLUSION: There is evidence supporting the hypothesis that adventitial cystic disease is a developmental condition occurring in the nonaxial blood vessels.

Retrograde balloon angioplasty of brachiocephalic or common carotid artery stenoses at the time of carotid endarterectomy.

OBJECTIVES: This study was performed to demonstrate the value and durability of intraoperative retrograde angioplasty for stenotic lesions of the aortic arch branches at the time of carotid endarterectomy for the treatment of tandem proximal and bifurcation carotid lesions. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of the clinical data. METHODS: Forty-four patients were included in this study when they presented with symptomatic extracranial vascular disease due to stenosis of both a proximal aortic arch branch and carotid bifurcation disease. Tandem disease was detected in the vascular laboratory and confirmed by angiography. Each patient was subjected to conventional carotid endarterectomy, and at the time of operation, the proximal lesion was subjected to transluminal angioplasty through the endarterectomy arteriotomy (brachiocephalic 24; left common carotid 15; right common carotid artery five). Patients were then followed up clinically and by non-invasive tests at 6-monthly intervals. RESULTS: Forty-three successful dilatations were achieved. The single initial technical failure was due to heavy calcification of a brachiocephalic artery. In the follow-up period restenosis was noted in four patients. All restenosis occurred within 24 months. No restenosis at the angioplasty site was noted on subsequent follow-up of the remaining 39 patients. No perioperative stroke or death was encountered. A surprisingly high mortality rate was noted on follow-up in this group of patients, suggesting the presence of more aggressive and advanced diffuse vascular disease. CONCLUSION: Retrograde intraoperative angioplasty of the proximal component of a tandem extracranial lesion has in this series proven to be a safe and durable therapeutic option. This technique has an acceptable restenosis rate in a subset of patients who have been demonstrated to have a shortened life expectancy and a high mortality rate in the follow-up period.

Penetrating injuries of the abdominal inferior vena cava.

This is a retrospective study of 74 patients with penetrating injuries of the abdominal inferior vena cava; the cause of injury was gunshot in 91% and stabbing in 9%. Of the patients, 77% underwent lateral venorrhaphy, 5% underwent infrarenal ligation of the inferior vena cava (IVC), and 18% died perioperatively before any caval repair could be carried out. There was an overall perioperative mortality of 39%. Persistent shock, the site of the venous injury, particularly in the retrohepatic position, and the number of associated vascular injuries were directly related to mortality. Irrespective of the improvements in resuscitation and the various operative methods available, penetrating trauma of the abdominal IVC remains a life-threatening injury.

The postnatal review: the task of the midwife.

There is growing realization that women's health and involvement in health care are essential keys to health for all. One way in which the midwifery profession can contribute to women's health is by providing high quality care during the six week postnatal review/checkup. A study in three provincial hospitals in the Port Elizabeth area showed that the actual structure of the postnatal review fell far short of the ideal as specified by the literature. Of all the elements included in the ideal postnatal review, only 23.5% of these were performed or supervised by the midwife. Seventy percent (70%) of these elements were not performed at all, thus emphasising the fact that a comprehensive health service is not being provided at the postnatal clinics in Port Elizabeth.